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In this case, knowing how to ask someone out in Hindi can make a great first impression. Teacher-student jokes are also popular in Hindi.
Giving him some elementary spiritual precepts picked up here and there, he made a mark with saffron on his social, which is called qashqa in the idiom of the Hindus and which they consider lucky. Barz 8 May 2007. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in some texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. Where are you glad me. आपको अंग्रेज़ी आती है. However, these mid-19th-century reports offered no indication of doctrinal or ritual differences between Hindu and Buddhist, or other newly constructed religious identities. I need your help.
The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the local South Asian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear. Retrieved 16 July 2016. Essential for the student.
Useful Hindi phrases - In early colonial era Anglo-Hindu laws and British India court system, the term Hindu referred to people of all Indian religions and two non-Indian religions: The colonial project was itself undermined by its own constitutive contradictions since many of these laws were no more intrinsic to Indian society than the proposed meld of English and Indian systems. According to Sheen and Boyle, Jains have not objected to being covered by personal laws termed under 'Hindu', but Indian courts have acknowledged that Jainism is a distinct religion.
Not to be confused with. Hindu · refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of. It has historically been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people indigenous to the. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time. Starting with the Persian and Greek references to the land of the in the 1st millennium BCE through the texts of the medieval era, the term Hindu implied a geographic, ethnic or cultural identifier for people living in the around or beyond the Sindhu river. By the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of the subcontinent who were not Turkic or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the local South Asian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear. Competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in some texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as , and used the phrase Hindu dharma Hinduism and contrasted it with Turaka dharma Islam. The Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term 'Hindu' in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals and Arabs following Islam. By the mid-19th century, colonial orientalist texts further distinguished Hindus from Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains, but the colonial laws continued to consider all of them to be within the scope of the term Hindu until about mid-20th century. Scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. At more than 1. The vast , approximately 966 million, live in India, according to India's 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the are, in decreasing order: , , , , , , , and. These together accounted for 99% of the world's Hindu population, and the remaining nations of the world together had about 6 million Hindus in 2010. It was used as the name of the and also referred to its tributaries. The , called in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in. The people of India were referred to as Hinduvān Hindus and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text. The term 'Hindu' in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term and did not refer to a religion. The Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Hindu culture in Bali,. The Krishna-Arjuna sculpture inspired by the in top , and Hindu dancers in traditional dress. Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar. While Xuanzang suggested that the term refers to the country named after the moon, another Buddhist scholar contradicted the conclusion saying that In-tu was not a common name for the country. The 'Hindu' community occurs as the amorphous 'Other' of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, according to. Other prominent mentions of 'Hindu' include the epigraphical inscriptions from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity. The term Hindu was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the later of Kashmir Hinduka, c. Hindus at , near river in state of India. Medieval-era usage 8th to 18th century One of the earliest but ambiguous uses of the word Hindu is, states , in the 'Brahmanabad settlement' which Muhammad ibn Qasim made with non-Muslims after the Arab invasion of northwestern Sindh region of India, in 712 CE. The term 'Hindu' meant people who were non-Muslims, and it included Buddhists of the region. It was so called, wrote Ibn Battuta, because many Indian slaves died there of snow cold, as they were marched across that mountain range. The term Hindu there is ambivalent and could mean geographical region or religion. The term Hindu appears in the texts from the Mughal Empire era. It broadly refers to non-Muslims. Pretending to be a spiritual guide, he had won over as devotees many simple-minded Indians and even some ignorant, stupid Muslims by broadcasting his claims to be a saint. Giving him some elementary spiritual precepts picked up here and there, he made a mark with saffron on his forehead, which is called qashqa in the idiom of the Hindus and which they consider lucky. The upper map shows distribution of Hindus, the lower of Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs. During the colonial era, the term Hindu had connotations of native religions of India, that is religions other than Christianity and Islam. In early colonial era Anglo-Hindu laws and British India court system, the term Hindu referred to people of all Indian religions and two non-Indian religions: The colonial project was itself undermined by its own constitutive contradictions since many of these laws were no more intrinsic to Indian society than the proposed meld of English and Indian systems. The British government created a compendium of religious laws for Hindus, and the term 'Hindu' in these colonial 'Hindu laws', decades before India's independence, applied to Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs. Beyond the stipulations of British law, colonial and particularly the influential Asiatick Researches founded in the 18th century, later called , initially identified just two religions in India — Islam, and Hinduism. These orientalists included all Indian religions such as Buddhism as a subgroup of Hinduism in the 18th century. These texts called followers of Islam as Mohamedans, and all others as Hindus. The text, by the early 19th century, began dividing Hindus into separate groups, for chronology studies of the various beliefs. Among the earliest terms to emerge were Seeks and their College later spelled Sikhs by Charles Wilkins , Boudhism later spelled Buddhism , and in the 9th volume of Asiatick Researches report on religions in India, the term Jainism received notice. According to Pennington, the terms Hindu and Hinduism were thus constructed for colonial studies of India. Followers of other Indian religions so identified were later referred Buddhists, Sikhs or Jains and distinguished from Hindus, in an antagonistic two-dimensional manner, with Hindus and Hinduism stereotyped as irrational traditional and others as rational reform religions. However, these mid-19th-century reports offered no indication of doctrinal or ritual differences between Hindu and Buddhist, or other newly constructed religious identities. Contemporary usage A young Hindu devotee during a traditional prayer ceremony at 's In contemporary era, the term Hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of , whether they are practising or non-practicing or. The term does not include those who identify with other Indian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in India such as Sarnaism. The term Hindu, in contemporary parlance, includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically Hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within Hinduism. One need not be religious in the minimal sense, states , to be accepted as Hindu by Hindus, or to describe oneself as Hindu. Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, nor a single foudning prophet; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. A Hindu may, by his or her choice, draw upon ideas of other Indian or non-Indian religious thought as a resource, follow or evolve his or her personal beliefs, and still identify as a Hindu. In 1995, Chief Justice was quoted in an ruling: When we think of the Hindu religion, unlike other religions in the world, the Hindu religion does not claim any one prophet; it does not worship any one god; it does not subscribe to any one dogma; it does not believe in any one philosophic concept; it does not follow any one set of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not appear to satisfy the narrow traditional features of any religion or. It may broadly be described as a and nothing more. Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, Hindus share philosophical concepts, such as but not limiting to , , , , and , even if each subscribes to a diversity of views. Hindus also have shared texts such as the with embedded , and common ritual grammar such as rituals during a wedding or when a baby is born or cremation rituals. Some Hindus go on pilgrimage to shared sites they consider spiritually significant, practice one or more forms of or , celebrate mythology and epics, major festivals, love and respect for and family, and other cultural traditions. A visible public form of this practice is worship before an idol or statue. This practice may focus on a metal or stone statue, or a photographic image, or a , or any object or tree or animal cow or tools of one's profession, or sunrise or expression of nature or to nothing at all, and the practice may involve meditation, , offerings or songs. Inden states that this practice means different things to different Hindus, and has been misunderstood, misrepresented as idolatry, and various rationalisations have been constructed by both Western and native Indologists. This however has been challenged by the Sikhs and by neo-Buddhists who were formerly Hindus. According to Sheen and Boyle, Jains have not objected to being covered by personal laws termed under 'Hindu', but Indian courts have acknowledged that Jainism is a distinct religion. Thus, the Supreme Court was forced to consider the question whether is part of Hinduism in 2005 and 2006. Starting after the 10th century and particularly after the 12th century Islamic invasion, states Sheldon Pollock, the political response fused with the Indic religious culture and doctrines. Temples dedicated to deity were built from north to south India, and textual records as well as hagiographic inscriptions began comparing the Hindu epic of to regional kings and their response to Islamic attacks. Pollock notes that the Yadava king Ramacandra is described as a devotee of deity Shaivism , yet his political achievements and temple construction sponsorship in Varanasi, far from his kingdom's location in the Deccan region, is described in the historical records in Vaishnavism terms of Rama, a deity avatar. Pollock presents many such examples and suggests an emerging Hindu political identity that was grounded in the Hindu religious text of Ramayana, one that has continued into the modern times, and suggests that this historic process began with the arrival of Islam in India. Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya has questioned the Pollock theory and presented textual and inscriptional evidence. According to Chattopadhyaya, the Hindu identity and religious response to Islamic invasion and wars developed in different kingdoms, such as wars between Islamic Sultanates and the Vijayanagara kingdom , and Islamic raids on the kingdoms in. These wars were described not just using the mythical story of Rama from Ramayana, states Chattopadhyaya, the medieval records used a wide range of religious symbolism and myths that are now considered as part of Hindu literature. This emergence of religious with political terminology began with the first Muslim invasion of Sindh in the 8th century CE, and intensified 13th century onwards. Andrew Nicholson, in his review of scholarship on Hindu identity history, states that the vernacular literature of sants from 15th to 17th century, such as , Anantadas, Eknath, Vidyapati, suggests that distinct religious identities, between Hindus and Turks Muslims , had formed during these centuries. Hindu identity amidst other Indian religions Hindus celebrating their major festivals, top and. Scholars state that Hindu, Buddhist and Jain identities are retrospectively-introduced modern constructions. Overlaps in Jain-Hindu identities have included Jains worshipping Hindu deities, intermarriages between Jains and Hindus, and medieval era Jain temples featuring Hindu religious icons and sculpture. Similarly, there is an organic relation of Sikhs to Hindus, states Zaehner, both in religious thought and their communities, and virtually all Sikhs' ancestors were Hindus. Marriages between Sikhs and Hindus, particularly among Khatris, were frequent. Some Hindu families brought up a son as a Sikh, and some Hindus view Sikhism as a tradition within Hinduism, even though the Sikh faith is a distinct religion. Julius Lipner states that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs is a modern phenomena, but one that is a convenient abstraction. Sacred geography Scholars such as Fleming and Eck state that the post-Epic era literature from the 1st millennium CE amply demonstrate that there was a historic concept of the Indian subcontinent as a sacred geography, where the sacredness was a shared set of religious ideas. For example, the twelve Jyotirlingas of Shaivism and fifty-one Shaktipithas of Shaktism are described in the early medieval era Puranas as pilgrimage sites around a theme. This sacred geography and Shaiva temples with same iconography, shared themes, motifs and embedded legends are found across India, from the to hills of South India, from to by about the middle of 1st millennium. Shakti temples, dated to a few centuries later, are verifiable across the subcontinent. Varanasi as a sacred pilgrimage site is documented in the Varanasimahatmya text embedded inside the , and the oldest versions of this text are dated to 6th to 8th-century CE. The idea of twelve sacred sites in Shiva Hindu tradition spread across the Indian subcontinent appears not only in the medieval era temples but also in copper plate inscriptions and temple seals discovered in different sites. According to Bhardwaj, non-Hindu texts such as the memoirs of Chinese Buddhist and Persian Muslim travellers attest to the existence and significance of the pilgrimage to sacred geography among Hindus by later 1st millennium CE. According to Fleming, those who question whether the term Hindu and Hinduism are a modern construction in a religious context present their arguments based on some texts that have survived into the modern era, either of Islamic courts or of literature published by Western missionaries or colonial-era Indologists aiming for a reasonable construction of history. However, the existence of non-textual evidence such as cave temples separated by thousands of kilometers, as well as lists of medieval era pilgrimage sites, is evidence of a shared sacred geography and existence of a community that was self-aware of shared religious premises and landscape. The tradition and temples likely existed well before the medieval era Hindu manuscripts appeared that describe them and the sacred geography. This, states Fleming, is apparent given the sophistication of the architecture and the sacred sites along with the variance in the versions of the Puranic literature. According to and other Indologists such as André Wink, Muslim invaders were aware of Hindu sacred geography such as Mathura, Ujjain, and Varanasi by the 11th-century. These sites became a target of their serial attacks in the centuries that followed. Hindu persecution Main article: The Hindus have been persecuted during the medieval and modern era. The medieval persecution included waves of plunder, killing, destruction of temples and enslavement by Turk-Mongol Muslim armies from central Asia. This is documented in Islamic literature such as those relating to 8th century , 11th century , the Persian traveler Al Biruni, the 14th century Islamic army invasion led by Timur, and various Sunni Islamic rulers of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire. There were occasional exceptions such as who stopped the persecution of Hindus, and occasional severe persecution such as under , who destroyed temples, forcibly converted non-Muslims to Islam and banned the celebration of Hindu festivals such as and. Other recorded persecution of Hindus include those under the reign of 18th century in south India, and during the colonial era. In the modern era, religious persecution of Hindus have been reported outside India. Hindu nationalism Main articles: and Christophe Jaffrelot states that modern Hindu nationalism was born in , in the 1920s, as a reaction to the Islamic wherein Indian Muslims championed and took the cause of the Turkish Ottoman sultan as the Caliph of all Muslims, at the end of the. Hindus viewed this development as one of divided loyalties of Indian Muslim population, of pan-Islamic hegemony, and questioned whether Indian Muslims were a part of an inclusive anti-colonial Indian nationalism. The Hindu nationalism ideology that emerged, states Jeffrelot, was codified by Savarkar while he was a political prisoner of the British colonial empire. Chris Bayly traces the roots of Hindu nationalism to the Hindu identity and political independence achieved by the , that overthrew the Islamic Mughal empire in large parts of India, allowing Hindus the freedom to pursue any of their diverse religious beliefs and restored Hindu holy places such as Varanasi. A few scholars view Hindu mobilisation and consequent nationalism to have emerged in the 19th century as a response to by Indian nationalists and gurus. Jaffrelot states that the efforts of Christian missionaries and Islamic proselytizers, during the British colonial era, each of whom tried to gain new converts to their own religion, by stereotyping and stigmatising Hindus to an identity of being inferior and superstitious, contributed to Hindus re-asserting their spiritual heritage and counter cross examining Islam and Christianity, forming organisations such as the Hindu Sabhas Hindu associations , and ultimately a Hindu-identity driven nationalism in the 1920s. The colonial era Hindu revivalism and mobilisation, along with Hindu nationalism, states Peter van der Veer, was primarily a reaction to and competition with Muslim separatism and Muslim nationalism. The successes of each side fed the fears of the other, leading to the growth of Hindu nationalism and Muslim nationalism in the Indian subcontinent. Religious riots and social trauma followed as millions of Hindus, Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs moved out of the newly created Islamic states and resettled into the Hindu-majority post-British India. After the separation of India and Pakistan in 1947, the Hindu nationalism movement developed the concept of in second half of the 20th century. The Hindu nationalism movement has sought to reform Indian laws, that critics say attempts to impose Hindu values on India's Islamic minority. Gerald Larson states, for example, that Hindu nationalists have sought a uniform civil code, where all citizens are subject to the same laws, everyone has equal civil rights, and individual rights do not depend on the individual's religion. In contrast, opponents of Hindu nationalists remark that eliminating religious law from India poses a threat to the cultural identity and religious rights of Muslims, and people of Islamic faith have a constitutional right to Islamic -based personal laws. A specific law, contentious between Hindu nationalists and their opponents in India, relates to the legal age of marriage for girls. Hindu nationalists seek that the legal age for marriage be eighteen that is universally applied to all girls regardless of their religion and that marriages be registered with local government to verify the age of marriage. Muslim clerics consider this proposal as unacceptable because under the shariah-derived personal law, a Muslim girl can be married at any age after she reaches puberty. Hindu nationalism in India, states Katharine Adeney, is a controversial political subject, with no consensus about what it means or implies in terms of the form of government and religious rights of the minorities. Hindus Total population 1,150,000,000 Regions with significant populations 1,040,000,000 23,500,000 12,680,000 — 14,487,500 10,000,000 3,885,000 3,230,000 2,554,606 1,949,850 835,394 820,000 600,327 551,669 497,965 440,300 261,097 240,100 200,000 190,966 185,700 177,200 162,600 140,000 128,995 120,000 90,018 63,718 60,000 55,409 52,631 41,988 Religions Scriptures , , , , , and Languages Predominant spoken South Asian languages: including , , and , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and Other Predominant spoken languages: including the , , , , , , , , , , and dialects , , , , , , , , , including and , , , , , , , and Sacred language: According to Pew Research, there are over 1 billion Hindus worldwide 15% of world's population. Most Hindus are found in Asian countries. The countries with most Hindu residents and citizens include in decreasing order are , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,. The fertility rate, that is children per woman, for Hindus is 2. Pew Research projects that there will be 1. Hindus in the World 2010 Region Total Population Hindus % total 885,103,542 2,013,705 0. Over 3 million Hindus are found in Indonesia, a culture whose origins trace back to ideas brought by Tamil Hindu traders to Indonesian islands in the 1st millennium CE. Their sacred texts are also the and the. The and the mainly and the are enduring traditions among Indonesian Hindus, expressed in community dances and shadow puppet performances. As in India, Indonesian Hindus recognises four paths of spirituality, calling it Catur Marga. Similarly, like Hindus in India, Balinese Hindu believe that there are four proper goals of human life, calling it Catur Purusartha - pursuit of moral and ethical living , pursuit of wealth and creative activity , pursuit of joy and love and pursuit of self-knowledge and liberation. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. But when, from AD 712 onwards, Muslims began to settle permanently in the Indus valley and to make converts among low-caste Hindus, Persian authors distinguished between Hindus and Muslims in India: Hindus were Indians other than Muslim. We know that Persian scholars were able to distinguish a number of religions among the Hindus. But when Europeans started to use the term Hindoo, they applied it to the non-Muslim masses of India without those scholarly differentiations. The rebellion was put down and all the collaborators executed. Pashaura Singh, 2005, pp. Although al-Biruni's original Arabic text only uses a term equivalent to the religion of the people of India, his description of Hindu religion is in fact remarkably similar to those of nineteenth-century European orientalists. For his part Vidyapati, in his Apabhransha text Kirtilata, makes use of the phrase 'Hindu and Turk dharmas' in a clearly religious sense and highlights the local conflicts between the two communities. In the early sixteenth century texts attributed to Kabir, the references to 'Hindus' and to 'Turks' or 'Muslims' musalamans in a clearly religious context are numerous and unambiguous. For Muslim historian's record on major Hindu temple destruction campaigns, from 1193 to 1729 AD, see Richard Eaton 2000 , Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States, Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. It was formed by adding the English suffix -ism, of Greek origin, to the word Hindu, of Persian origin; it was about the same time that the word Hindu, without the suffix -ism, came to be used mainly as a religious term. The name Hindu was first a geographical name, not a religious one, and it originated in the languages of Iran, not of India. They referred to the non-Muslim majority, together with their culture, as 'Hindu'. Since the people called Hindu differed from Muslims most notably in religion, the word came to have religious implications, and to denote a group of people who were identifiable by their Hindu religion. However, it is a religious term that the word Hindu is now used in English, and Hinduism is the name of a religion, although, as we have seen, we should beware of any false impression of uniformity that this might give us. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Hindu is used today for an adherent of Hinduism, the common religion of India. Hindoo is listed in dictionaries as a variant spelling, but it is one that may lend itself to derogatory use. Nevertheless, there is a sort of visual onomatopoeia; a Hindu has dignity, while a Hindoo seems slightly ridiculous. Marty 1 July 1996. University of Chicago Press. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu. Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University press. The Continuum companion to Hindu studies. Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga; Naya and Vaiseshika. This classic work helped to establish the major classification systems as we know them today. Reprint edition: Kessinger Publishing: February 2003. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship First revised ed. Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd. This work gives an overview of many different subsets of the three main religious groups in India. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U. University of Chicago Press. University of California Press. University of California Press. Even a pious saint had gathered together fifteen slaves. Regrettably, all had to be slaughtered before the attack on Delhi for fear that they might rebel. But after the occupation of Delhi the inhabitants were brought out and distributed as slaves among Timur's nobles, the captives including several thousand artisans and professional people. It is worth noting that, in contrast to the traditional claim of hundreds of Hindu temples having been destroyed by Aurangzeb, a recent study suggests a modest figure of just fifteen destructions. The persecution during the Islamic period targeted non-Hindus as well. In both and Kashmir the leader was roused to action by Aurangzeb's excessively zealous Islamic policies. Seized and taken to Delhi, he was called upon by to embrace and, on refusal, was tortured for five days and then beheaded in November 1675. Two of the ten Sikh gurus thus died as martyrs at the hands of the. The Journal of Asian Studies. Religious conflict in India 1700-1860, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010. Retrieved 31 March 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2017. Hindu minorities also reside in Central and East Kalimantan, the city of Medan North Sumatra , South and Central Sulawesi, and Lombok West Nusa Tenggara. Hindu groups such as Hare Krishna and followers of the Indian spiritual leader Sai Baba are present in small numbers. Retrieved 15 May 2015. Office of National Statistics 11 December 2012. Retrieved September 7, 2014. Retrieved 21 April 2016. Census Dictionary, 2006 cat. Retrieved 14 July 2008. Bureau of Statistics — Guyana. Archived from on 30 May 2013. Archived from on 14 February 2010. Retrieved 2 October 2013. Archived from on 28 February 2008. Retrieved 14 February 2015. Archived from on 19 August 2012. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion, I. Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, pp. The term Hindutva equates religious and national identity: an Indian is a Hindu... 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